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Wednesday, April 3, 2019

Using Translation As A Means Of Interpretation English Language Essay

Using reading As A Means Of meter reading English Language Essay displacement reaction is an activity comprising the interpretation of the signifi bungholece of a textbook in match little actors line and the production, in an separate(prenominal) linguistic communication, of a new, alike text, or variant. Its design is to establish a congeneric of comparing of intent among the p arntage and tar commence texts, temporary hookup taking into account a number of constraints. These constraints and differences between an SL and a TL and the chromosomal mutation in their cultures play the process of translating a real challenge. Among the problematic factors complicated in supplanting include context, form, the rules of grammar of some(prenominal) lyrics, consequence, elbow room, their composing conventions, their figurative languages, much(prenominal) as proverbs, idioms, metaphors, euphemisms, and the like.One of the grammar/vocabulary argonas that ca engagement close to problems for students of English is euphemisms. Euphemisms atomic number 18 talking to or dialects that argon manipulationd to soften the reality of what ar macrocosmness communicated to a inclined listener or reader. They ar a universal feature of language usage since all cultures typically economic consumption them to talk ab kayoed topics they find terrifying, for example war, sickness, and goal.Euphemisms ar powerful lingual tools that atomic number 18 embedded so deeply in our language that a couple of(prenominal) of us, even those who pride themselves on being 2plainspoken, ever get through a day with unwrap using them (Rawson, 19811). The need for euphemism is both friendly and emotional, as it allows discussion of touchy or verboten subjects (such as sex, ad hominem appearances or religion) without enraging, outraging, or up peg d taketing diametrical commonwealth, and acts as a coerce valve whilst principal(prenominal)taining the appearan ce of civility.Also, euphemisms argon highly important expressive agency of any(prenominal) language and argon frequently use in e realday life. They make the speech much expressive, vivid, and colorful. This makes the euphemisms adapt speech to diametrical situations. Thus euphemisms alleviate people to fit to the proper context and to express ideas all the dash. tout ensemble these euphemisms appeared of course in the process of e very(prenominal)day usage. People instinctively try to head off the word not to offend or to hurt virtuosos feelings. So euphemisms are synonyms that aim at producing a deliberately mild effect. When people use them in proper situations, it means that they care well-nigh otherwise people.As carrier (2003) puts it, Euphemism is the language of evasion, prudery and deceit, unless euphemisms as well as help us to cope with troublesome situations, and many of them are a source of laughter. As euphemistic expressions evolve in the course of sn ip and new euphemisms release to replace the old angiotensin converting enzymes, they also help to keep the language assortment alive.Similarly, euphemisms are utilise to express taboos, as we feel, on some instinctual level, that the euphemism keeps us at safe distance from the taboo itself. Another use of euphemisms is to gain the status of some amour (e.g., using 3educator for teacher, attorney for lawyer) only in prevalent, euphemisms are used to express what is socially difficult to express in direct verges.Euphemisms are formed based on four devices, as proposed by Warren (1992). The setoff-class honours degree device is word validation, in which the delivery are formed by compounding, blends, acronym, derivation, and onomatopoeia. The second device is phonemic modification. below this endpoint, the euphemisms are formed by modifying their phonetics. The third device is loan voice communication, which are words from other languages. The destruction device is s emantic innovation. In this case, a word or a phrase mickle be take up as a euphemism when its meaning no extended refer to their substantial meaning, but the euphemism intended meaning.The fact that many euphemism words or phrases potbellynot be predicted from their formations ( detailally in the semantic innovation device) makes language more complicated for the bookman of English. Such formations are often personaicularly difficult to understand because the disciple hears a string of words, which they know very well, but which in formation do not make any sense.It is common fellowship that in order to provide an adequate version, the adapter moldiness be competent to sense nuances in the semantics of both the source-language and buns-language texts. English euphemism words or phrases are of great interest to the enquiry worker in this respect because they possess quite an a number of semantic, well-formed and stylistic peculiarities, sometimes making their undefil ed version into Indonesian difficult. Obviously, such semantic peculiarities of English euphemisms must cod influenced the process of their comment into the Indonesian language. 4Therefore, to be able to accommodate valid data, the researcher used a novel entitled The agree of All Fears by gobbler Clancy and its tryd version, Puncak Ketakutan, as the source of data. It was chosen because Tom Clancy is a novelist who always set a thriller genre and put armed services and political circumstances in which euphemistic expressions commonly appear.Finally, in this research, the theatre is meant to show to the reader that euphemisms in The Sum of All Fears are translated into euphemisms, non-euphemisms, or they are not translated into both forms, in the sense that they are deleted or are kept in their legitimate forms. To do as such, the researcher also identified several kinds of strategy applied in translating them. Then, it apprize be concluded that the result of this researc h depart show whether the adaptations of euphemisms convince the meanings or not.1.2 Scope of the studyThis study is focusing on ii significant focuses. The first is English euphemisms, in this context, the words and phrases. The second is the Indonesian equivalent of translated form. The field in which the problem will focus is in the novel The Sum of All Fears, written by Tom Clancy.1.3 question QuestionsThere are one of import(prenominal) research question and 2 sub-problems when developing this study. The main research question is how the euphemisms in The Sum of All Fears are translated. The sub-problems followers the main research5questions are What kinds of strategies do the translator use in translating euphemisms in the novel? and Does the translation of euphemisms happen upon the meanings?1.4 Purpose of the StudyThe aim in this study is to answer the main problem, the way euphemisms in The Sum of All Fears are translated. Also, the sub-purposes of the research a re to identify the strategies occurred in the translation of euphemisms in the novel and to find out whether or not the translated euphemisms affect the meanings.1.5 Time and Place of the StudyThe research was held within louver months, which was from March 2007 to July 2007. The study is a written-data research that is not tied to a certain place.1.6 Significance of the StudyBy passing out this research, the results of this research are expected to enrich the study of translation and to be advantageous for the writer to obtain a deeper understanding about translation area. Furthermore, this research will possibly add a valuable input signal concerning the translation of euphemism. Not only that, this research is also meant to enlarge the prospect for English De character referencement students who wish for a more understanding about the area.6CHAPTER IILITERATURE REVIEW2.1. Studies on TranslationTranslation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equi valent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to re get under ones skin various kinds of texts-including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts-in some other language and thus making them available to wider readers.If language were just a categorization for a set of general or universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from an SL to a TL. Furthermore, under the circumstances the process of learning a second language would be much easier than it actually is. In this regard, Culler (1976) believes that languages are not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world differently, and languages do not simply name categories they articulate their proclaim (p.21-2).Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language the source text and the production, in another language, of a new, equi valent text the target text, or translation. Traditionally, translation has been a gracious activity, although attempts concord been make to automate and computerize the translation of natural-language texts machine 7translation or to use computers as an aid to translation computer-assisted translation.The goal of translation is to establish a singing of equivalence of intent between the source and target texts (that is to say, to ensure that both texts communicate the same message), while taking into account a number of constraints. These constraints include context, the rules of grammar of both languages, their writing conventions, their idioms, and the like.In the process of translating, there are some conventions that must be attained by translators. Duff (1989) summarizes them as meaning, form, register, source language influence, style and clarity, and idioms. These principles of translation keep hold on the most essential part in the process of translation, which is t he meaning. As formulated above, the goal of translation is to radio link the same message in, yet, different form. Therefore, it should bounce accurately the meaning of the original text. The form is also significant after the meaning because of the aspect of the lodge of words and ideas. Register, in the other hand, indicates the levels of nobleity in a choken context (say, the business letter). Register the follows by source language influence, which touch on the translators thoughts and choice of words. Same with the others, the style and clarity and idioms aspects cannot be left screw since they also share the same significance part with each other during the translation process.The translation process, whether it is for translation or interpreting, can be exposit simply as decoding the meaning of the source text, and re-encoding this meaning in the target language. To decode the meaning of a text the translator 8must first identify its component translation units, that is to say the segments of the text to be treated as a cognitive unit. A translation unit may be a word, a phrase or even one or more sentences.Behind this seemingly wide-eyed procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the complete meaning of the source text, the translator must consciously and methodically interpret and disassemble all its features. This process requires thorough knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms and the like of the source language, as well as the culture of its verbalisers.The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language. In fact, often translators knowledge of the target language is more important, and needs to be deeper, than their knowledge of the source language. For this reason, most translators translate into a language of which they are native verbalizers. In addition, knowledge of the subject matter being discussed is essential. In recent years studies in cognitive linguisti cs bring been able to provide valuable insights into the cognitive process of translation.2.1.1 Translation strategies, methods and proceduresThe translation strategy as defines by Loescher (19918) is a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem go about in translating a text, or any segment of it. As tell in this definition, the plan of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the learners or translators.Taking into account the process and product of translation, Jaaskelainen (2005) divides strategies into 2 major categories some strategies relate to 9what happens to texts and other strategies relate to what happens in the process. Product-related strategies, as Jaaskelainen (200515) writes, involves the basic tasks of choosing the SL text and developing a method to translate it. However, she maintains that process-related strategies are a set of (loosely formulated) rules or principles which a translator uses to impact the goals determined by the translating situation (p.16).Meanwhile, Newmark (1988) mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that, while translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language (1998 81). He goes on to refer to the following methods of translation (1) word-for-word translation, in which the SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings and out of context, (2) literal translation, in which the SL grammatic constructions are converted to their burn d haveest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly and out of context, (3) faithful translation, which attempts to farm the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures, (4) semantic translation, which differs from faithful translation only in as far-off as it must take more account of the aesthetic cling to of the SL text, (5) adaptation, which is the freest form of translation and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry in the tell that the themes, characters, plots are unremarkably preserved. Here, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten, (6) free translation, which produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the 10original, (7) idiomatic translation, which reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by selectring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not endure in the original, and (8) communicatory translation, which attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.Thoroughly, Newmark puts precedent the following translation procedures that he proposes. They are (1) transference, which is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes tran sliteration and is the same as what Harvey (20005) named transcription, (2) naturalization, which adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, whence to the normal morphology of the TL, (3) heathenish equivalent, which means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. Note that Newmark verbalize that they are not accurate (198883), (4) functional equivalent, which requires the use of a culture-neutral word, (5) descriptive equivalent, (6) componential digest, in which the translator compares an SL word with a TL word which has a homogeneous meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components, (7) synonymy, which has the sense that the form is a near to TL equivalent, (8) through-translation, which is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called calque or loan translation, (9) shifts or transpositions, which i nvolves a transplant in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, the change from singular to plural, the change required when a specific 11SL structure does not exist in the TL, the change of an SL verb to a TL word, the change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth, (10) modulation, which occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective, (11) recognized translation, which occurs when the translator normally uses the official or the mostly accepted translation of any institutional term, (12) compensation, which occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part, (13) paraphrase, (14) couplets, which occurs when the translator combines ii different procedures, (15) notes, which are additional information in a translation. Notes can appear in the form of footnotes.Other different translat ing procedures are depicted by Nida (1964 241-47). They are as follow (1) technological procedures, which is the analysis of the source and target languages and a through study of the source language text before making attempts translate it, and making judgments of the semantic and syntactic approximations, and (2) organizational procedures, in which a constant reevaluation of the attempt made contrasting it with the existing available translations of the same text done by other translators, and checking the texts communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness and studying their reactions.2.1.2 comparability in TranslationThe comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a possibility of equivalence. Equivalence can be said to be the central set off in translation 12although its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of honor of translation theory have caused heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this field in the past fifty years. Among the theorists who stated their theories of equivalence are Nida, Catford, and Baker.Nida argued that there are two different theatrical roles of equivalence, that is to say formal equivalence-which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as formal correspondence-and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon the principle of equivalent effect (1964 159). In the second edition (1982) or their work, the two theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.One can easily see that Nida is in favour of the use of dynamic equivalence, as a more effective translation procedure. This is suddenly understandable if we take into account the context of the situation in which Nida was dealing with the translat ion phenomenon, that is to say, his translation of the Bible. Thus, the product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing. Only in Nida and Tabers edition is it clearly stated that dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information (ibid. 25). in spite of using a linguistic plan of attack to translation, Nida is much more provoke in the message of the text or, in other words, in its semantic quality. 13He therefore strives to make sure that this message remain clear in the target text.While, Catfords approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation . Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria, which are the fulfilment of translation (full translation vs partial translation), the grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation vs. unbounded translation), and the levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).However, Catfords definition of textual equivalence is kind of circular and his theorys reliance on bilingual informants is hopelessly inadequate. It can be said that the translation process cannot simply be reduced to a linguistic exercise, as claimed by Catford, since there are also other factors, such as textual, cultural and situational aspects, which should be taken into consideration when translating. In other words, linguistics is not the only discipline which enables people to carry out a translation, since translating involves different cultures and different situations at the same time and the y do not always match from one language to another.In another point of view, new adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence (grammatical, textual, pragmatic equivalence, and several 14others) and made their appearance in the embarrassment of recent works in this field. An extremely interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence can be found in Baker (1992) who seems to rear a more detailed list of conditions upon which the concept of equivalence can be defined. She explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in relation to the translation process, including all different aspects of translation and hence putting together the linguistic and the communicative approach.She distinguishes between four equivalences. First is equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language into another. Second is grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages. She notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. troika is textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Texture is a very important feature in translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis of the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for the TC audience in a specific context. It is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as the coherence of the SL text. His or her decision will be guided by three main factors, that is, the target audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type. The fit is pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of dodging during the translation process. Implicature is not about 15what is explicitly said but what is implied. Therefore, the translator needs to work out implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST message across. The role of the translator is to recreate the authors conception in another culture in such a way that enables the TC reader to understand it clearly.The notion of equivalence is undoubtedly one of the most problematic and controversial areas in the field of translation theory. The term has caused, and it seems quite probable that it will continue to cause, heated debates within the field of translation studies. This term has been analyzed, evaluated and extensively discussed from different points of view and has been approached from many different perspectives. The first discussions of the notion of equivalence in translation initiated the further purification of the term by contemporary theorists. Even the brief outline of the issue given above indicates its importance within the framework of the theoretical reflectance on translation. The difficulty in specify e quivalence seems to result in the impossibility of having a universal approach to this notion.2.2. Studies on EuphemismsThese terms give us ways of talking about the evaluative content of language, which is that part which doesnt describe a thing in the world, but rather expresses the speakers carriage towards it. As said by Blackaby (2002), a euphemism is a word or phrase that replaces another and that is considered less offensive or less raw than the word or phrase it replaces. The idea comes from a Greek word, euphemismos, which essentially means good speech. 16Euphemisms, as defined by Holder (2003), involve the use of mild or vague expressions to substitute for deaden precision or disagreeable truths or concepts. They sometimes involve substitute an inoffensive, or even a pleasant term, for one more explicit, thereby veneering the truth by using kind words in order to avoid particular embarrassment or obscure negative connotation. jibe to Allan Burridge, a euphemism is u sed as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face either ones own face or, through giving criminal offence, that of the audience, or of some third troupe. In fact, many euphemisms are alternatives for expressions the speaker or writer would simply prefer not to use in executing a particular communicative intention on a given occasion.There are at least three areas, as said by Blackaby, in which to be careful about using euphemisms. First is the area in which the language related to sexuality and what might be called lavatory (potty) talk. Second is the area in which the language that involves softer words substituted for swearing or cursing. The fit is the area in which the language that substitutes for profanity profaning Gods name, since the very first area that is considered in using euphemistic expressions was certainly religious.Almost every culture develops its own way of saying certain things in a better way. both generation and every culture develop their own euphemisms. It is believed that the use of euphemisms reflect peoples psychological world. Based on this account, Huang (2005) states four main causes from the origin of euphemisms. The first is taboo subject. Because euphemisms originated from 17primitive society, people believed that language was not plainly a symbol but also with magic power. It could bring them misfortunes as well as fortunes, mentioning a certain names ran the risk of being punished, so they usually avoided these taboos. The second is the elegancy. To seek beauty is one of adult male natures, consequently whenever they deal with some inelegant physiological phenomena in communication, people tend to avoid vulgarism so as to achieve elegance. These euphemisms are usually concerning part of body, copulation, pregnancy, menstruation, and excretions. The third thing is politeness. In communication, people usually followed such rules as appropriateness, generosity, praise, modesty, similarity and sympathy, so people often use indirect expressions to achieve politeness. Such euphemisms are usually concerning job, appearance, or character. And the last cause is disguise. People often use euphemisms to disguise something in the other fields of life. Such euphemisms are usually used in politics, economy, or war.As being stated above, one of the causes of euphemistic expressions is the deal with taboos. Taboos exist in all known cultures and they change in the course of time. Hundreds of euphemisms have emerged to replace pejorative and objectionable words. However, euphemisms dont necessarily have to deal with taboos. In modern usage euphemisms are often mainly concerned with politeness. In certain situations using euphemisms instead of saying things directly is considered more considerate. For example, employees can be hired and fired, but perhaps it would be more tactful to talk about dehiring instead of firing them. Furthermore, Euphemisms are widely used in t he language of commerce and 18industry. Military jargon also contains euphemistic expressions. We may find these euphemisms are created to make the military actions less guilty for the soldiers. Of course, there are some euphemisms referred to sex, because verbal taboos are loosely related with e.g. sex, death and basic biological functions.The function of euphemism is to protect the speaker/writer, hearer/reader, or all of the above from possible effrontery and offence. This offence may occur in the broaching of a religion or death topic or by mentioning subject matter to which one party involved may be sensitive. In order for communication to encourage smoothly and without conflict, accommodations are continually, and often subconsciously, made. Euphemism is the language that might be misleading, but euphemisms may also help people to deal with troublesome, embarrassing and awkward situations. It helps people to turn their face away from direct connection with those things that are morally barred. Euphemisms can also make the dialogue sound more poetic, of higher class, or more proper. Of course, in contemporary literature, many words or phrases once referred to by euphemistic expressions are now draw in a more straightforward manner.Interpretation varies according to context, i.e. whether the speaker means the term to be euphemistic, and the hearer interprets it in that light (Warren, 1992). With euphemism being so entwined with context, however, classification of a term as euphemistic becomes difficult. For this reason, Allen and Burridge (199121) invoke the hypothetical context of being polite to a casual ally of the opposite sex in a formal situation in a middle class environment as one in which a euphemism is likely to be used in place of a 19dispreferred alternative. To maintain a constant standard in defining terms as euphemistic during the current study, this pragmatic context will be used. It should be remembered, however, that even within this context objective euphemism classification is a grey area, and judgements may differ from person to person.2.2.1. Classification of EuphemismsAccording to Cumming (2003), euphemistic expressions can be classified based on phonologic (sound) and semantic (meaning). The phonological area have seven sub-categories (1) remodellings, (2) clippings and abbreviations, (3) foreign words, (4) abstractions, (5) indirections, (6) longer words, (7) technical terms. In the other hand, the semantic area has five sub-categories (1) metaphor, which means a word or a phrase to refer to something that it isnt, implying a similarity between the word or phrase used and the thing described, (2) metonymy, which is a word or phrase that replaces another and uses of a single characteristic to identify a more complex entity, (3) circumlocution, which refers to a whirligig way of talking, (4) hyperbole, which is a word or phrase that replaces another that usually extremely exaggerated or extravagant, and (5) understatement, which is a word or phrase that replaces another where a lesser expression is used than what would be expected.These categories from Cumming are based on conventional euphemistic expressions. The conventional euphemistic expressions are the words which sole purpose is to make reference to a taboo topic in a polite way. This category has more to do with politeness and social norms than the speakers actual 20feelings. This is very different with the general euphemistic expressions, which are the ways of describing a situation, event or thing which convey an attitude towards it.Meanwhile, Joseph M. Williams as noted in Neaman Silver (1983) suggests five general semantic processes by means of which euphemisms are created. First is by borrowing words from other language in which the terms are less freighted with negative associations. Second is by widening. When a specific term becomes too painful or vivid, the words are moved up in the ladder of abstraction. Sometime s, in addition to widening, the words are divide to the negative connotations of a single direct term between two or more words. Third is by semantic shift. This is the substitution of the whole, or a similar generality, for the specific part we do not acquire to discuss. Fourth is by metaphorical transfer, the comparison of things of one order to things of another. The last is by phonetic distortion, which is divided into other nine sub-categories (1) abbreviation, (2) apocopation (shortening or omitting the last syllable), (3) initialing, (4) backforming, (5) reduplication, (6) phonetic distortion, (7) blend

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